Heres What I Know About Definition Essay Samples

Here's What I Know About Definition Essay Samples There are an endless number of words which can be defined in the period of an essay. Any academic writing piece calls for an appropriate structure. All essays should have a thesis statement. So without further ado, below are some effective writing tips to create your common app essay stick out! 1 person might say a hipster is a person who follows all the hottest trends, while another might think that it is someone who has his own distinct style. For a student who doesn't investigate correctly, it is extremely simple to become confused and to mix up definitions or explanations. Each definition would be wholly tied to the person's person experiences, naturally. The Fundamentals of Definition Essay Samples Revealed Professors ask students to compose the essay for students to show them their knowledge of the subject. Time will soon age their outer appearance. Students use plagiarizing as a means of doing fantastic work so tha t they will receive a fantastic praise. Yes, sometimes students need some excess inspiration to begin their own work and that's fine. New Questions About Definition Essay Samples All you will need is quality content written within the directions. It's possible to discover a lot of information about words nowadays, all you will need is an online connection. A number of the things are linked to example essays to provide you with even more inspiration. Lies You've Been Told About Definition Essay Samples As usual, in concluding section you've got to sum up the key points of your argument but in various words. Rephrase the key areas of the definition and ensure you summed up everything you planned on saying. The solution is rather easy. Well, it is quite easy, it hardly really matters! Definition Essay Samples - Dead or Alive? Select a word which you are acquainted with and understand on a simple level. Use enough words to clearly show your private opinion, provide some exam ples from the true life, and tell the significance of the period. You'll usually begin with the dictionary definition, as a way to give yourself a starting point. The best method to start is to look up several diverse definitions of the period, and see the way that it's usually utilized. Identify three conditions that you believe meet the definition. Mention the method by which the definition you were speaking about affected you. Thus, there's not any reason to include things like a dictionary definition. Standard definition is the one which you will see in the dictionary. Here's What I Know About Definition Essay Samples When picking a definition essay topic, you should understand the topic before you pen the essay for other people to read. More than that, you ought to be interested in it, otherwise your essay isn't likely to be remarkable in any way. You've approached the last portion of your essay. For example if you're writing a definition essay in your philosophy class, you may be requested to compose a definition essay on the topic of ethics. As with any other essay, a definition one has its peculiarities in addition to content requirements that should be met to be successful in the writing. If you are searching for definition essay examples here's a great one below. You will learn the way to compose a definition essay, how to choose the topic you love the most, how to deal with defining the elaborate conditions. Among the various kinds of essay, there's a definition essay that could appear to be among the most simple assignments. Writing a brief draft is quite effective, and a few teachers even require students to submit drafts to make certain that they've written the essay themselves. Some teachers require the essay outline only because they need to be sure the students will write fantastic papers.

The Founding Fathers Of The United States - 841 Words

Me: Being able to have a discussion with one of the founding fathers of the United States is aa very interest event in my life and time Sir. Benjamin Franklin: You are must welcome. May I ask your name and what year is this? Me: Yes Sir, My name is Pearl Lilly and I am a current Public Administration student and this is the years of 2016and I welcome you. Me: Sir, can you describe your position during the Constitution Convention. Benjamin Franklin: time was surely different, being that there are 10 founding fathers and that I would was having a conversation with George Washington, John Adams, and the others. I am Benjamin Franklin, I was one of the â€Å"first persons to sign the peace treaty† the peace treaty was to keep the states from†¦show more content†¦Benjamin Franklin: What is the role of the United States government in 2016? Me: The roles of the various branches of government today, I would have to say that three branches were created from the Constitution are the Legislative, Executive, and the Judicial Branch of government. Me: Mr. Franklin, like from the time that you and the other founding fathers had implemented the Constitution, this country still rely and respect the constitution help to make this country what is today each branch is responsible for different things such as the Legislative Branch is responsible for making the laws and the United States Congress is divided by two houses that are the Senate and the House of Representative. Me: The Executive Branch is set up to make sure that the laws are enforces, and the Judicial Branch helps to explain the meaning of those laws. Each branches of government ensure that all the states are doing thing and following the laws of the land and that states to make sure that no one states has control over another (). Provide at least two examples for both exclusive federal powers and exclusive state powers. Benjamin Franklin: With so many changes in the government system from my time, can you please provide at least two examples for both exclusive federal powers and exclusive state powers. Me: Yes Sir, under the Federal powers, the examples that I provide you with would be those that the United StatesShow MoreRelatedThe Founding Fathers Of The United States1705 Words   |  7 Pagescountries including the United States of America. Athenian democracy, created near 400 B.C. in Athens, Greece, was a direct system where participating citizens had the opportunity to vote directly on legislative and executive bills. The founding fathers of the United States took the Athenian’s idea and created the idea of â€Å"representative democracy†, where the citizens of a nation were able to elect representatives who would make decisions for them. In fact, the United States could be considered toRead MoreThe Founding Fathers Of The United States Government1205 Words   |  5 PagesThe Founding Fathers put their blood, sweat and tears into the making of the Constitution and created a government out of practically nothing, all while having a vision for the future. Thi s future consisted of a government that focused on liberty over security; a government of minimal intervention. To say that the modern version of the United States government is exactly what the Founding Fathers envisioned is a very debatable topic. There are many instances where todays government has followedRead MoreAmerica s Founding Fathers And The United States Essay1845 Words   |  8 PagesWhen America’s founding fathers broke away from England, they weren’t the first colonial Englishmen on the American continent, there were plenty of French, Spanish, Dutch and even Russian colonial outposts established before them. What makes the English colonies along the Eastern seaboard story so important, was the fact that 13 colonies joined together to form what is now known as the United States. Furthermore, this 13 colonies New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,Read MoreGriswold V. Connecticut : The Founding Fathers Of The United States2438 Words   |  10 PagesGriswold v. Connecticut The Founding Fathers of the United States of America laid the foundation for the basic and fundamental rights that its citizens are entitled to. These principles have been the underlying framework for the United States of America’s government and legal system, where the citizens hold the power. Throughout the country’s history, many laws on both state and federal levels have been challenged and have thus evolved America’s culture. Among these laws that have challenged theRead MoreEssay Founding Fathers of the United States: George Washington 607 Words   |  3 PagesWashington was the father of the United States of America. He created our country from the beginning. Not only was he a great leader, but he was also a great commander. He helped us win the Revolutionary War, which gave our country independence. We finally became free, and that’s the greatest thing in America. The fact that he motivated regular people to fight a huge army is amazing. In 1732, George Washington was born on his fathers plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia. His father, AugustineRead MoreThe United States Founding Fathers Created A Unique System Of Government2934 Words   |  12 Pages Over 200 years ago the United States’ Founding Fathers created a unique system of government that allowed a balance to exist between both the federal government and the separate state governments. Through the three branches of government, specifically the executive and legislative branches, the United States has been able to act as a unified body with several varying individual parts. With the executive branch and the legislative branch each having outlined powers of their own the Founders wereRead MoreVoting throught the History of the United States: Not Living Up to the Founding Fathers ´ Ideals1118 Words   |  5 Pagesincreased opportunity and equality to Americans perhaps not all though. United States have not lived up to the founding fathersâ €™ ideals. Voting first limited to those who had land; then those who did not could, and finally women got their chance to vote. The nation limited American rights to vote but it limited equality as well. In 1828 most states had dropped the requirement that voting citizens must own property but no states then allowed women, American Indians, or slaves to vote (97). In 1848Read MoreGeorge Washington : The Founding Fathers901 Words   |  4 Pagesmost coveted among the founding fathers. It is difficult to pinpoint a general idea of what the founding fathers wanted for the future of the United States. Some did not want banks just as Jackson did and some wanted to allow a central to making funding of the government much easier. In many ways leaders in Antebellum American were almost just as divided as the founding fathers but more visibly so. We will only look at what George Washington envisioned for the United States. His views were consideredRead MoreThe Constitution Of The United States1632 Words   |  7 PagesAlexander Pima Community College March 9, 2015 The Constitution of the United States After gaining independence from Britain, America was faced with the challenge of creating a new government for the people of the American colonies. The Founding Fathers first created the Articles of Confederation but after much criticism the Founding Fathers met again and created the Constitution of the United States. The Founding Fathers wanted to form a government that was unlike the British government theyRead MorePresident Lyndon B Johnson s Speech1556 Words   |  7 Pages President Lyndon B Johnson gave his State of the Union speech on January 8, 1964; Johnson’s speech followed many of the basic principles put forth by our founding fathers in the Declaration of Independence and in the United Sates Constitution. The United States of America was founded upon the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution these documents were drawn up by our founding fathers. The two documents have different purposes, the Declaration of Independence was used to declare independence

What I Know About Islam Essay - 2608 Words

During the 11 years that I lived in India, I had two Christian friends. I never asked them what kind of Christians they were as I was unaware of the existence of the different sects of Christianity. I am sure they did not know either as we were too young. I am familiar with Christianity and Sikhism as I grew up around people who followed these religions. The city that I grew up in had and still has a large Muslim population; however, I never got a chance to learn anything about Islam. This was partly due to the high tensions between Muslims and Hindus. I recall an incident that occurred in India during my childhood years. I must have been 7 or 8, when riots broke out between Muslims and Hindus after the burning of Godhra Train in the state of Gujarat. I remember hiding in a tiny room that we had on the rooftop, where most of the women and children from my neighborhood came to hide while the men were preparing to fight the Muslim rioters. Thank God nothing happened that night and the information received was incorrect. Although, my views on Islam has changed as I grew older and learned more about Islam; initially, this incident left me with a negative impression about Islam. As I grew older, I realized that I was at fault for generalizing, not all Muslims are bad and this incident certainly does not make Islam a violent religion. Therefore, when I was provided with the opportunity to do immersion on other religions than my own, I chose Islam to gain deeper understanding andShow MoreRelatedReligion Beliefs And Religious Beliefs868 Words   |  4 Pagesreligions such as Catholic, Islam, Judaism, Taoism, Buddha but the most popular two religions are Islam and Catholic. Religion is a basic thing in a person life. Anyone in the world should follow what his family is following with religion, like my family they are Muslim, So, I should follow what my family is following but I have a friend his family are Jewish but he is Catholic because he read a lot of Catholic bo oks and what is Christianity about and what is the truth about this religion. The generalRead MoreWhat Are We Believe?968 Words   |  4 PagesWhat to believe in? All my life I wondered which of the thousands of religions, if any, is the right one to believe in. I’m sure most religious people have found their selves questioning if the God or higher power they’re devoting their time to is even real. I for one have done that more times than I can count. Today, there’s roughly 4,200 different religions in the world. That’s 4,200 different beliefs in the world, all believing in a different God or higher power. Some of us are extremely religiousRead MoreReligion Is The Most Popular Two Religions Are Islam And Christianity941 Words   |  4 Pagesreligions such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Taoism, Buddha but the most popular two religions are Islam and Christianity. Religion is a basic thing in a person life. Every person in the world should follow what his family is following with religion, for example; my family they are Muslims. I should follow what my family is following but I have a friend whose family is Jewis h but he is Catholic because he read a lot of Christianity books about what is the truth about this religion. The general pictureRead MoreEssay on Future of Islam624 Words   |  3 Pages The Future of Islam When first approached with the question â€Å"what the future of Islam is?† my mind raced around many places and had lots of different thoughts. I had no clue what the future of this religion would be I thought there are people for the American Gov. who are being payed a lot of money to figure this out and I don’t think they even know. So I decided to do research to figure out what my opinion on this matter was. I found that there could be different futures for different placesRead MoreWorldview/Religion Analysis of Islam Essay1238 Words   |  5 PagesWorldview/Religion Analysis of Islam By Elizabeth Case Student ID: L6924379 Presented to: Dr. Raymond Johnson In partial fulfillment of the requirements of Introduction to Apologetics APOL 500 Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary Lynchburg, VA April 3, 2011 Worldview/Religion Analysis of Islam Summary of Islam The Arabic term Islam literally means â€Å"surrender† or â€Å"submission†. The followers of Islam, known as Muslims (from the active participle of Islam), accept or surrenderRead MoreDoes the Media Correctly Portray Islam? Essay861 Words   |  4 Pagesrandomly asked people what came to mind when they heard the word Islam (Boston Globe 2005). The majority of the responses were 9/11, terrorists, suicide bombers, Saddam Hussein, and other things along those lines. This may have reinstated the opinions of those who thought poorly of Islam, and already believed it to be a United States hating terrorist religion. Now I see these fallacies even more clearly because I too had similar beliefs; but after taking a course on terrorism, I have since reconsideredRead MoreEssay Understanding Islamic Religion and Culture1221 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is your view on the Islamic religion and culture? Did you know they are the fastest growing religion in the world today, with eighty -percent now developing outside the Arab world(Belt, Don) Today’s generation does not show much interest or knowledge of their own religion; let alone the Islamic people. Most people only expose themselves to information that matches their own opinions and beliefs. Instead of learning and exploring new things about the world they stick to what they know becauseRead MoreIslam, by Karen Armstrong762 Words   |  4 PagesArmstrong, Karen. Islam. New York: Random House, Inc., 2000. Islam is the worlds fastest growing faith. It all began in 610 C.E. when the Prophet Muhammad received revelations of the Quran in Mecca. Islams reputation of promoting a strict and controlling government, female oppression, civil war, and terrorism is not completely correct. Islam is a rich and complex religion that is often misunderstood in the modern world. There have been many obstacles that have been faced. Islam wouldnt exist todayRead MoreThe Second Pillar Of Islam Essay1395 Words   |  6 Pagesmigration to Medina. The Islam community identifies this as Muhammad’s flight to Medina and is considered the beginning of the Muslim calendar, but I see it more as his escape to Medina. They were planning on assassinating him how could this be considered something that was supposed to happen? What would have happened if there was not a plot in place to assassinate him and he didn’t have to escape to Medina? If that had occurred then I feel that the religion of Isl am would have had a hard timeRead MoreNot For Ergun And Emir Caner, The Authors Of Unveiling Islam922 Words   |  4 Pagesanything else. I have been attending worship services for as long as I can remember, and I have never looked back, or questioned my faith. Reading about these two mean and their conversion from Islam to Christianity was inspiring, and humbling. For someone like me, who is sure in what they believe, that process seems impossible. Not for Ergun and Emir Caner, the authors of Unveiling Islam. In addition to reading the book, I wanted more information on the lives of these authors, so I watched several

JB Priestly Essay Example For Students

JB Priestly Essay Jane Eyre is a semi-autobiographical account written in 1847. Charlotte Bronte was born in 1816. Jane Eyre is a 10-year-old orphan that lives with her aunt Mrs Reed in a grand house. Janes loneliness causes her to become isolated she escapes and hides herself in thick curtains in a big deserted room, because her aunt and cousins make her feel like an outcast as she wanted to read a book, and wasnt allowed. Jane refuses to listen which causes her to be severely punished by being sent to the red room. Take her away to the red room and lock her in there . Her independence and strength of character is shown in detailed words. Jane verbally and physically lashes out on her cousin John as a sign of strong nature to be treated equally. As a terrible punishment she is forced by her aunt, which has absolutely no sympathy for her to be put in the red room. Imagery is created with the associations of the red room. The room is red; Bronte uses the colour red to symbolize anger, passion, fear and danger as well as death. The red room was the room that Janes uncle died, it was this chamber he breathed his last; here he lay in state . Jane was clearly terrified about the prospect about being locked in this room, with gloomy associations. She is extremely distressed and angry on the unjust treatment she receives from her family who despise her. She accepts shes unwanted and unloved by understanding her position and role in the household. As it starts to get dark outside while in the red room she becomes more aware and afraid of her surroundings. She becomes convinced that the room is haunted and bellows out for help, this shows that her state of mind has changed. Servants come to her aid but they are unsympathetic. Mrs reed thrusts Jane, bodily inside the room at that point Jane faints, and I suppose I had a species off fit. Secondly a lot of language devices are carried out in the text. Bronte also uses first person persona she also uses a narrational voice, audience gain an insight into the mind of Jane, which shows mental pictures, created with words. I resisted all the way this shows Jane is full of passionate anger and encouraged by her outburst at John to fight on. The simile described by Bessie shes like a mad cat, also personification is used to indicate Jane as a cat it makes an image mentally created with words of Janes temper and outrage. Bronte uses a metaphor and also a juxta position rebel slave this shows that Jane is a rebel when she isnt treated fairly. To produce emotive language Bronte uses I cried so that the reader can sympathise Janes upset of her tears. Seldom slept in , creates an effect of tension and slight mystery to the reader, the build- up of the strange atmosphere and the detail ness of everything inside the room. This reproach of my existence had become a vague sing-song in my ear , this metaphor is a descriptive device which states that one thing is another, figuratively rather than literally it shows shes constantly reminded off her dependence on the Reed household. No jail was ever more secure , Jane is not really in a jail but from her point of view it is, Bronte is using a hyperbole. The bed rose before me; to my right hand there was a high dark wardrobe with subdued, broken reflections raring the gloss of its panels Bronte conveys janes stare of mind by describing things in the room that surrounded around her as enormous and sombre. .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 , .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .postImageUrl , .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 , .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:hover , .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:visited , .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:active { border:0!important; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:active , .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146 .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uae7453f31a9f4f524c49ca97a6adf146:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Comparing Poems from different cultures EssayAlso Bronte conveys Janes questioning with a series of rhetorical questions. Why was I always suffering, always browbeaten, always accused for condemned? , this shows that Jane feels sorry for herself and defines self pity which causes her to reflect on her drastic emotions. Overall I think Janes state of mind is rebellious and confused she doesnt know whether to surrender I quailed to the dismal present . Also I find that her varied emotions reflect that shes on her period as all the colours of the room are red associating with her period. As her mood swings in various ways. For example her state of mind is changed from; rebellious, accepting, terror, epiphany, self-pity then to becoming hysterical as she is hallucinating as she watches the bed rise before her. Also the red coloured room could be her womb and shows she could be on her way to growing into a woman.

Learning Theories free essay sample

This chapter takes a brief look at the two major categories of learning theories (behaviorism and constructivism), the major theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for the use of multimedia and communications and information technology for learning purposes. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief overview of learning based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries about the functioning of the brain. A series of links are provided to further resources on learning theory, neuroscience, and the brain. pic] Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We have all experienced a learning moment when we were so focussed or engulfed in the learning, that everything else did not matter. Candidly, the raison detre or motivation for our focus may have been that we had a boss or teacher breathing down our neck or an impending exam was to quantify our level of knowledge or intelligence or a particular moment necessitated that a skill be learned very quickly. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning Theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Regardless of the motivating factors for this moment of focussed learning, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer label in their respective theories, as moments of optimum flow or mindfulness. According to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when: Alientation gives way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to reinforce the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of external goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating such moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. Moreover, certain learning theorists are advocating the greater use of technology, namely computers, in learning situations because they see enormous potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. Learning is a personal act. We each plac e our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in effect have our own learning style. Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences which acknowledges learning as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the most well known descriptors of human cognitive profiles. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature. It can at times appear to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do not question its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is natural to our existence as learning organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning process for granted. It is only then that our metacognition or awareness of how we learn is heightened. Learning is taken for granted as a natural process. As simple a process it may seem, the root of understanding how we learn is not as straight forward. The existence of numerous definitions and theories of learning attest to the complexity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology text will illustrate the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology: An Introduction, for example, the authors write, Learning implies a change in the individual as a result of some intervention. It may be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a starting point for the authors to expand their description of learning into many other realms, namely the different theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their text just to describe the many ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to evaluate the aforementioned definition of learning and to equate it with a specific theory, it is important to recognize that intervention in the learning process can imply many different things. The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining factors of a learning theory. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you will see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover new ways of viewing human cognition. The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists (McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning. According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels broadcast learning to interactive learning. No longer are todays generation of learners satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional teaching process, rather, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children using GlobaLearn [a web site], are beginning to process information and learn differently than the boomers before them. New media tools offer great promise for a new model of learning one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscotts thesis that the technological revolution is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to examine the use of computer technology as learning devices. Such rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the question based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a learning tool make sense? This chapter will answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. [pic] The Spectrum of Learning Theories As a review of the literature of learning theories will illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists associated with each approach. A categorization of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn. A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of: †¢ the associated names of the theory †¢ a description of the theory †¢ theorists associated with the theory †¢ hyperlinks on the World Wide Web Diagram #1: The two extremes Behaviorism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning. As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum. [pic] Behaviorism The Associated Names of this Theory: Behaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed instruction. As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism: J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A Description of Behaviorism: The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind. Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlovs dog. The focus of Pavlovs experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B. F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote: The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. (Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many behaviorist artifacts in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviorists have had on learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of contingencies, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into conditions of learning (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A. I. , or computer-assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The contingencies of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning. Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching approach because it allows for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages: http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/theory. html http://tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. html#REF13085 http://www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learnterm_b. html [pic] Constructivism: The Associated Names of this Theory: Constructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learners ability to mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism: John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of Constructivism: The merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North American population over the past six decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment. The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these basic ideas be used to design instruction ? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps. It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviorist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher centered and directed. Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning. Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. His four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Childrens Machine: Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences. According to Papert: It [constuctivsm] does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly: Even the statement (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the least teaching. Of course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb: If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Paperts desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process. According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscotts perspective, Paperts desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions. Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today: †¢ From linear to hypermedia. †¢ From instruction to construction and discovery. †¢ From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. †¢ From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn. †¢ From school to lifelong learning. †¢ From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. †¢ From learning as torture as learning as fun. †¢ From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages: http://www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/construct. html http://www. gwu. edu/~tip/bruner. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http://lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm [pic] Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extremes of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram #2). Inherent within each of these two extremes are related theories. Diagram #2: (Spectrum Summary) Behaviorism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Constructivism   Directed Instruction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Non-directed Instruction Objectivist   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Constructivist Teacher-centered   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Learner-centered Behavioral observations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cognitive operations Focus on the individual   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   Group work is emphasized More focussed on one approach   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning. Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are: Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and Brain-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian Diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development. The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the zone of proximal development. The job of educators was to identify this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a scaffolding process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences. The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave: Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans. Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html [pic] Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. His list includes: †¢ Linguistic intelligence †¢ Logical-mathematical intelligence †¢ Spatial intelligence †¢ Musical intelligence †¢ Bodily-kinesthetic †¢ Interpersonal intelligence †¢ Intrapersonal intelligence Gardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes: Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardners fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor-sensory, were eliminated from the individuals repertoire despite having endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans. Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardners theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardners theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages: http://www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html [pic] Learning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the neural structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for subsequent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as: how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmother’s house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for Beethoven’s Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has bee n enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long-term studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to map neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory. Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to maximize the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and maximize the efficiency of retrieving that information. Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the context of institutionalized public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society. We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing. [pic] The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have between 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous amounts of information. It is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons throughout adult life. [pic] Brain Structures The diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of body systems. The cerebellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physical skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The limbic system is responsible for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated. Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin; and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. Long-term memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought. To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response. Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for future use. Thus a large looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and prepare the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to hide or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions. At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a balance must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. Some stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn; on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative context) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories. Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote. Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. [pic] Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments. These principles include: 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct ones own meaning, not to have the right answers by repeating someone elses meaning. Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning: orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that fully immerse students in a learning experience; relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment; and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it (On Purpose Associates, 1998a). Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the exploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. [pic] Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video. Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through multiple modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learner’s brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learner’s brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to existing knowledge structures within the learner’s brain. Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners. Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear danger that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners. We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough; learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory. [pic]

How a horse changed my life Essay Example

How a horse changed my life Essay Example How a horse changed my life Essay How a horse changed my life Essay I was helping my AH group with our International night table when I decided to play my luck at the raffle table. I put all my money Into one basket and actually won the raffle basket. It was a basket for horse lovers and Included horse grooming products and books about horses. I never rode a horse before because I was born with multiple disabilities Including a tethered spinal cord and life threatening latex allergy. My biggest challenge In life has been living on the outlasts spectrum. I could not be around crowds, loud noises and I avoided being part f groups and activities. I did not have self-confidence or a passion and my autism affected my ability to socialize. My mother saw how excited I was about willing and she took me to the horse farm for a rolling lesson. I soon found a passion. It was at this time, that the spinal babied was diagnosed. I had major surgery to repair the defect. After my surgery, I had to face the challenge of living with a partially paralyzed bowel and bladder and had to learn how to use my legs again. At first I would walk alongside the horses, and then I began riding horses again. The horse I was riding and walking with name was Pippin. He never gave up on me no matter how weak I was. Pippin was my best friend and was always there for me when needed someone to talk to. A year after my surgery Pippin and I were getting ready for my horse show. I ended falling off because I was still weak. When I fell Pippin did not run away like must horses. He stayed right by my side till I got up. The next week I won my first horse competition and fell in love with the sport. Pippin soon became part of the Master Family for all the work he did with me, and for his reward he now spends his days retired in a great big barn with a nice field.

See order instructions. It is one page discussion question. reference Coursework

See order instructions. It is one page discussion question. reference source within last 5 years thank you - Coursework Example Heart diseases account for 25% of the total number of deaths in the US. Obesity is another health problem that is very prevalent among the middle-aged adults. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, 34.9% of the US citizens are obese (2009). However, the rate of obesity has been found to be higher in the African Americans. The third health problem that can be minimized by regular exercise is depression. Anxiety and depression are the most prevalent mental illnesses in the US today. Almost 40% of the middle-aged adults have been affected by these mental illnesses (ADAA, 2012). As a nurse I would carry out a health promotion on regular exercise that will help the society eliminate the aforesaid health complications. I would reach the targeted group through the available community based organizations and offer a practical teaching on exercise and healthy living. I will use pictures and videos as teaching aids. The middle-aged adults will be encouraged to involve themselves in activities such as walking and running to keep them fit. However, they should not overdo it; too much exercise might make them very tired and prevent them from doing their jobs